Greek Art in Classical and Hellenistic Times 

(c.480-423 BC)

"No other city has contributed more to the civilization of mankind than Athens. It is the place where Socrates was born, Plato, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides and many others. It is the place that humanism and democracy were born. The intellectual light that Athens created will always be alive." *

Time Line

A Brief History of Athens beginning with the building of the Parthenon
During the fifth century BC Athens was quickly becoming the most powerful leader of Greece in terms of politics, economics and culture. This sudden change in reputation was due in part to its role during and after the Persian Wars in helping to keep the Greek people out of the grasp of the Persians. The Athenians played such a large role in the war that when a group of cities called the Delian League was created in order to keep the Persian Navy away from Greek waters, Athens was put in charge of the funds for this  group. This and many other contributing factors allowed Athens to become a major military force encouraging all volunteers from outside of Athens to become Athenian subjects as well. By the mid fifth century BC Athens had also increased in its size to include over 30,000 citizens, most of whom were male. Under the new law of democracy all citizens of Athens were guaranteed a level of civil justice. This idea of democracy was furthered by Perikles one of the most well known, and influential leaders of the artistic architecture of Greece. Under this democracy, every citizen had the right to speak and vote in the public assemblies that determined domestic and foreign policy.

With a government that the people were more comfortable with in place, it had become time for the artistic and cultural activity of Athens to really begin. Soon famous playwrights such as Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides were presenting their works on the steps of the enormous homage to the Patron Goddess of their city Athens, named Athena, which was called The Athenian Acropolis. But where did the money come from to build such a grand structure composed of pentelic marble and decorated with an ambitious amount of sculpture? Within the Acropolis are some of the most amazing pieces of sculpture that art historians look to every day for inspiration. The source of income for such a magnificent hall was the subject of much distress at the time as Perikles was using the money Athens was receiving for their military efforts to rebuild this site that had previously been destroyed during the war (447 BC-538 BC).
Model of The Athenian Acropolis
 
The Acropolis/ "The Sacred Rock"

It is clear that throughout Athens, political developments were directly influencing Greek art. Perikles was beginning to adopt the idea that a program of public spending would more often than not win the popular vote among the people. The Athenians were not only in battle and competition with the Persians for the land and the governance of the state but also with their neighbors at Presupposes (3,000 miles away) who had already built an enormous sculpture for the time. Determined not to be outdone, the Athenians began to build an even more impressive structure and so began the "extravagant" Acropolis.

Everything about the Acropolis was decorative, from the Panathenaic Way that leads the way up from the Agora (*), to the entrance way of not only one doorway but a five-fold system of entrances known as the Propylaea (*), and finally to the huge Parthenon (*) which houses the city's statue of Athena. Almost entirely composed of marble, the architect Mnesikles used porches, colonnades, and coffered ceilings throughout the Acropolis to give an even more regal appearance. In fact, the entrance to the Acropolis is much larger than was necessary at that time, as if to give the impression that the artist wanted the people to stand back and admire the structure.
 The Decorative Aspects of the Acropolis
Beginning with the metopes which were carved in the mid-400's BC we can see a rich history of  mythical symbolism.  On every side of the Acropolis one is able to see a representation of a God or Goddess overpowering another force as if to challenge anyone that does not agree with Athenian rule. On the east side was the famous scene of the gods versus the giants, on the west side the Amazons, on the south the centaurs, and finally on the north, a scene of the taking of Troy. One of the most well known scenes is that of Athena (who with the touch of her spear, produced an olive tree) contesting the possession of Attica with Poseiden (who with a touch of his trident, produced the salt spring) which is located on the west pediment.


Easy Pediment
Athena vs. Poseiden
 
On the east pediment we see the scene of Athena's birth from Hephaistos and Zeus. Other characters on the east pediment are not as easily recognized and have been the subject of much debate for years. One such example can be found in the image below, as we can only assume that they are Hestia, Dione, and Aphrodite.


Parthenon: E. pediment: [Figs. K, L, M] Three Goddesses (Hestia, Dione and Aphrodite?).
ca. 438-432 B.C.

Parthenon: E. pediment: [Fig. O] Chariot Horse of Selene.
ca. 438-432 B.C.


Parthenon: N. frieze: Horsemen in the Pan-Athenaic Procession [Figs. 107-122, sections XXXV-XXXIX].
ca. 438-432 B.C.


Parthenon: Centaur and Lapith [metope XXX from S. side].
ca. 447-438 B.C.

Architecture in Ancient Greece
Although there are many examples of Greek architecture, it is the temple that best exemplifies the purpose of quality in Greek architecture. The temple's primary function was a religious one, set to serve the cult of divinity and therefore usually housed numerous statues of gods or goddesses. However, the temple was used as one element of a sanctuary whose boundaries included such things as sacred trees or springs. While the surroundings did play a pivotal role in the importance of the temple the vertical structure of the temple was also important, with its stepped base plan with rectangular rooms for the main statue and offerings and one or more rows of columns surrounding all four sides. Each vertical structure followed a particular order, the two most important in Classical Greek Architecture being the Doric and Ionic, which were supposed to represent the proportions of a man and a woman. The third is known as Corinthian and was developed in the late Classical period but was more commonly seen in the Hellenistic and Roman periods. Corinthian columns are decorated in a vegetal pattern typically made to resemble acanthus leaves. In the temples the order was in control of not only the column itself but of all of the relationships between the objects within the temple.

The Statue of Athena Parthenos (Pheidias)

The Statue of Athena itself is amazing and raises many questions pertaining to the idea of classicism and realism. Weighing in at approximately 2,500 lbs of gold, it is amazing to wonder where the money for such an amazing form came from. This is especially significant, since the question of whether or not the people ever had an opportunity to look at the Parthenos is unclear. However, regardless of her audience, Athena, who was known for being protective over her city in ways surpassing the typical maternal way stood victorious representing warriors watching over all of her people.

Athena
Sculpted by Phidias

 
Detailed view of the 40 foot statue of Athena
Additional images of Athena

Athena's Warrior status is implied by her helmet ("from whose visor sprung winged horses"); the spear resting against her shoulder, and by the female victory figure she holds in her right hand. Her highly protective manner is evident in her shield, propped up by the "snake that guards the home."  Athena was heroic on and off of the battle field as the goddess that was instrumental in the defeat of the giants (which is the main reason for her iconography) and for women she also remains a model citizen with her title claim of chastity and voluminous style of her dress.

Phidias wanted all of his statue to convey the sense of enormity that the rest of the Acropolis gave to its audience. Because of this he used every inch of conceivable space . On the inside of the shield that stands to Athena's left is the famous battle of the gods against the giants and on the exterior were the Amazons. On the sandal of the statue were the famous scenes that are carried throughout the Acropolis of the Lapiths fighting the Centaurs. However it is common belief that the most recognizable part of the statue is in fact the frieze that is found on the base of the Statue depicting the birth of the first women, Pandora (who is comparable to the Biblical Eve as man's downfall) who stands along with twenty other Olympians.

Snake holding up shield

Athena's Shield
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Additional images of the Acropolis
Discovering the Identities of Greek Icons
Much of what we see in Greek Art from this time period is difficult to name such as with the reclining man and wounded solider above. In fact we rely heavily on the friezes that fen accompany the statues and monuments for reference. The Parthenon Frieze which is one of the most popular friezes that we as art historians study indeed has many characters that we assume to play certain roles simply because of their relation to other figures in the scene.

  Ephebe ("Kritios Boy").
ca. 480 B.C.
Many of the figures we have are headless such as the Three Goddesses, or featureless due to deterioration or the eventual destruction of most of the city by the Persians. What is it that we must look for as clues into what the Athenians saw when they looked at these figures? How can we claim  relatively unrecognizable marble to be classical in form?  Beginning with the obvious, we look at the above figures and know that we are looking at female figures due to the shape and outline of breasts and the drapery of their cloth. We are able to determine that these women are in fact are in fact the female deities (located on the east pediment) and we use the same idea of symbolism and visual representation to determine what makes such figures (that are located throughout the Acropolis) classical in style.

The Nude vs. Classicism  and Beyond
The athletic nude or semi-nude musculatures of the Parthenon Frieze are fantastic representations of the classical style of Greece at the time. The figures are all turning with the same amount of ease it appears whether it be the the front, back or side and there is an apparent use os controlled rhythm throughout the procession as with the restless horses. In the article titled "Nudity as a Costume in Classical Art" Larissa Bonnet mentions that there are five basic reasons accounting for mankind's use of clothing:
  1. as protection against the elements
  2. for social reasons, to distinguish members of a tribe or class
  3. from a sense of shame
  4. for aesthetic reasons as decoration, beauty, and to attract the opposite sex
  5. for apotropaic reasons, to turn away the effects of magic, sorcery, the evil eye, and hostile spirits.
In Greek Society nudity itself was used as a costume, and eventually it marked  a contrast between Greek and non-Greek, men and women and human and animal. Clothing has the power to shock us whether it be on the body or off. Originally in the the time of Classical Antiquity clothing was seen as a garment used to hide the wearer's sex organ, eventually moving on the decoration of the body and eventually to the appreciation of nakedness as the only essential "Clothing" leaving the naked body to be a matter of aesthetics and coining the term, "nude" (p.544)
 

Nike unbinding her sandal: relief figure from parapet of the Temple of Athena Nike, Athens.
ca. 415-410 B.C. Classical Style
 
Wounded Trumpeter, called the "Dying Gaul": Roman marble copy after bronze original from Pergamum in Asia Minor.
ca. 220 B.C. Hellenistic style


If we are able to look beyond the obvious nudity of the figures as our twenty-first century minds often force us to do however we can see the clear meaning and symbolism in the friezes which enable them to tell the stories they were intended to. Such as with the the religious connotations the Parthenon Frieze seen through the carrying of water jugs, libations, cakes and honey, and other sacrificial materials.


The Parthenon Frieze
Women with Incense

 


Aphrodite, Eros and Pan:detail
ca. 100 B.C.


Greek Art of the Later Fifth and Forth Centuries BC
Athens remained the leading artistic center for the end of the fifth century and beginning of the forth century, however it was clear that politically they had fallen behind as the Peloponnesian League led by Sparta started a war with the city of Athens generating many deaths due to the plague and a general somber mood in the wake of the death of Perikles. This most is evident in the sculptural tomb markers and other burial items such as vases with painted  decoration on a background of white slip in addition to the more traditional Black and Red Figure Vases. It is said that vase painters in an attempt to regain some of the artistry of the past  looked to the style and iconography of the Parthenon sculptures for reference. From this developed a newer impressionistic drapery style looking almost like calligraphy appearing almost as if it were wet.

Styles and variations of cups, amphoras, etc.


 
Black Figure, Amphora A
Decorated Area: A - ATHENA IN CHARIOT
Decorated Area: B - ACHILLES AND MEMNON, FIGHTING OVER ANTILOCHOS, EOS AND THETIS (?)
Decorated Area: A - GIGANTOMACHY, ATHENA IN CHARIOT TURNING
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The Final Development of Pathos
Artists of the fourth century BC worked on a more international level than previous artists traveling throughout the Mediterranean for inspiration whether it be to be more current or to develop a new style of vase design Travel also became instrumental for these artists as they would begin to produce commissions with teams of artists such as the Mausoleum at Halikarnassos (image) Later it was Praxiteles of Athens who created the first nude sculpture of Aphrodite for a sanctuary at Knidos a city on the coast of Asia Minor. His symbols of slender proportions and contrapposto became the symbols of sculptural style of the time and would come to be replicated on large and small scale for the remainder of the period. The arts of Ancient Greece had become a classical figure. One manifested in a new interest in personal human experience expressed as pathos. In general the idea of the body being connected with all forms of art is a popular one enabling us to tie architecture, sculpture and painting to the Greek's other artistic endeavors.
By Mary Browse Davis
Sweet Briar College
Art History Senior Seminar 452
Feb.1, 2004


Bibliography