Stonehenge is one of Europe's most famous monuments because of its mystery and its intriguing construction. Stonehenge is located in the lush Salisbury Plain two miles west of Amesbury, Wiltshire, in Southern England. The site of Stonehenge has been in question for over 800 years because of its complexity and obscurity, and as a result has become the topic of many research studies. Henry of Huntington once wrote “No one can conceive how such great stones have been so raised a loft, or why they were built there” (Fagan pg.150). The Stonehenge monument consists of large standing stones of different sizes and types of stone placed in a circular setting , called the trilithon. However, there is much more to Stonehenge then just the stone trilithons ( a structure consisting of two large vertical stones supporting a third stone set horizontally across the top (wikipedia.com) ); for example, the numerous burial sites in the surrounding areas. What is less familiar, perhaps, are the three different building phases of Stonehenge . These building phases were key to the development and role that Stonehenge played in the daily life of the Neolithic people and perhaps later civilizations . These building phases were key to the expansion of Stonehenge and it is thought to have played a large role in the surrounding society, and perhaps later civilizations.

The initial building phase of Stonehenge started around 2950 to 2900 BC, often referred to as the “ Earthwork Monument .” The work done during this phase does not resemble the Stonehenge of present-day, however, its purpose was important to the time period. During this phase, Stonehenge consisted of a circular ditch that was enclosed by two earth banks, and ironically, no stones were used. Within these banks, there were two entrances, the primary to the northeast (which would continue to be the used as main entrance throughout the construction of Stonehenge), and a second towards the south. The embankments consisted of fifty-six holes, called Aubrey holes, which held timber posts. The Aubrey holes are named after John Aubrey, the 17 th century antiquarian who first discovered them. The ditch was perhaps used for ritual purposes; archeological digs have found bones as well as the residue of burnt animal flesh and bone in the embankments. The findings in these excavations have given rise to the supposition that it was once used for ritual purposes. Within the ditch, “animal bones were placed on the bottom…at certain points, most notably the entrances…The newly constructed ditch was not deliberately kept clear and soon began to fill in with a dark organic layer, the residue of burnt animal flesh and bone, and silt” (Souden pg. 30). The bones found closer to the entrances, specifically jawbones, were dated to be over three hundred years older than other bones found within the site. In keeping with the theory that the embankment was used as a site for rituals, the placement of the jawbones might have been deliberate given that they may have been objects with important spiritual significance . The fifty-six Aubrey holes contained timber poles, which were later either removed or destroyed. This first phase of construction is important for understanding the spiritual importance of Stonehenge . The spiritual evidence, from the buried animal bones and flesh residue to the sacrificial embankments demonstrates that the Neolithic people revered the site as a sacred place.

The second phase of Stonehenge , referred to as the “ Timber Monument ,” was constructed and used between 2900-2400 BC. During the beginning of construction, the outer ditch was partially covered while the other areas of the embankment were left to fill up with sediment. The original Aubrey timbers were removed and the holes where the Aubrey timbers once were, the remnants of human bone and cremation remains were interred.

The most obvious outward change during this time period was the complex placement of the timber posts. These new posts, unlike the Aubrey posts, seemed to be placed in scattered about and randomly located. At further glance, it is apparent that the posts had been placed in various clusters; one in particular emerged as a circle, in the center of the rest of the larger circle. However, it is very hard to determine if these patterns were deliberate since the entirety of Stonehenge cannot be dug up to expose the locations of the remaining timber posts. Therefore, it is often thought that the stone version of what we now think of as Stonehenge , is actually a replica of the original timber post layout. The other two post hole arrangements are easier to identify. The post hole arrangements at the main northeastern entrance “suggest a series of wooden walls that made a narrow triple entrance into the monument, through which the rising sun would have shone directly on midsummer morning” (Pg. 32). A similar arrangement can be seen at the southern entrance, thus portraying a sense of channeling the visitor to a specific place within the larger circle. These types of timber enclosures have been found throughout England , such as West Kennet and Mount Pleasant . Consequently , it is believed that these arrangements were used for defensive purposes or to form a sacred space. However , it is thought that the latter is more probable because it “divided the space rather than enclosing it” (pg. 32).

During this stage and during the final phases of construction, it is thought that Stonehenge was used as a cremation cemetery. This was not necessarily something new at Stonehenge, but the cremation remains in the old Aubrey holes gave more credibility to this theory . “It is interesting to note, given the solar orientation, that more were found on the eastern side than on the western…Cremation burials have also been found cut into the infilled ditch and in the monuments interior, all suggesting a fairly intensive use of Stonehenge as a burial site at this time” (pg.32). The purpose of the monument had changed, however, throughout the next thousand years its purpose would change even more dramatically.

The third and final phase is referred to as the “ Stone Monument .” It is during this time the stone monument we see today was erected, this phase took approximately a century to complete, therefore making it the longest phase. Within the third phase there was a great deal of reordering and dismantling; however, the circular formation was continually used throughout all the reconstruction sub-phases. This final phase began in 2550 and lasted until 1600 BC. The first stones to be erected at Stonehenge were called bluestones; these were the smallest stones within the setting. They were originally placed in order to create two concentric settings; whether these bluestones formed a circle is unknown, they could have formed an arc or square. The way in which the bluestones were arranged is unknown, some speculate that they were all fitted together and others believe that they stood vertically perhaps with lintels on top. Thus, it is hard to determine how this sequence of stone work played into the final steps and construction of Stonehenge .

The next phase of stone laying came with the arrival of sarsen stones (very hard sandstone), which was all dismantled within approximately 100 years of its initial construction. By the end of this process something very close to Stonehenge's final form emerged. Large pieces of sarsen stone were brought to the site to form post and lintels. All of these stones were shaped to perfection in order to make all the stones appear as similar as possible. The final phase of these stones made a horseshoe shape and with their completion came the placement of bluestones within the horseshoe. “Inside the horseshoe of the great trilithons, more than twenty of the original bluestones were carefully shaped and dressed, then erected in an oval, probably around 2000 BC” (pg. 37). Within this final phase of construction an alter stone was placed within the horseshoe of bluestones.

Scattered throughout the larger area of Stonehenge are six other stones that have unknown dates yet their placement makes them important in understanding the role that Stonehenge played. The most important of these six stones is the heel stone that stands at the northeast entrance to Stonehenge in a ditch. The stone is important because “at the midsummer solstice the sun rises beside the heel stone almost certainly means that originally it was one of a pair of stones and that the first light would then have shone directly through them into the central enclosure. The heel stone and its companion would then have been a reinforcement of the power of the sun at the midsummer sunrise” (pg.40). Hence once again it is apparent that one of the main purposes of Stonehenge was its interaction with the sun, and, more importantly, the seasons.

The importance of the sun and the seasons is apparent throughout the investigation of Stonehenge 's purpose. Many people believe that the structure was built as a calendar for the farmers of this area; a calendar would have been essential to their lives. However considering that the scale of the structure and the length of time it took to create it, it is hard to believe that it was only used as a calendar.

The stones tell us a great deal about what Stonehenge may have been used for; however, the people can tell us more because Stonehenge gained its significance in the interaction of the people with the environment. The original inhabitants of the Stonehenge area were hunter-gatherers however because of the dense forests during this period most of the hunter-gatherers lived near the coastal areas and had no interaction with the Stonehenge site. By the time construction began on Stonehenge, crop and animal farming became very extensive and the population in the area had grown a great deal. Hence with this boom in population the people had the ability and manpower necessary to build Stonehenge . This large population may have also been the reason why Stonehenge was created, because of the larger need for communal worship. There is little evidence to prove that these people did a great deal of worshipping in there homes. However, it seems that Stonehenge served as their sight of worship, perhaps playing the role of the church for them.

The two theories that have been drawn on about Stonehenge 's purpose: it having been used as an astronomical observatory and having been a sacred place. The original idea of it being an astronomical observatory was presented in 1906 by Britain 's Astronomer Royal, Sir Joseph Lockyer thought that the stones were aligned with the movements of the sun and stars. Yet his observations were naïve because “he relied heavily on coincidence” (Fagan pg. 158)and his findings were not very scientific, making his theories unsubstantiated. But in the 1960's astronomer Peter Newham “found new alignments for the equinoxes and the moon” (pg.158).The astronomical observatory theory has been much debated especially by archeologists who believe that this site was thought of as sacred. Yet the idea that Stonehenge was used as a type of calendar by mapping the stars and also the pattern of the rising and setting of the sun is an important theory to recognize. This theory would make sense because the people in these civilizations needed a means to determine a farming schedule. “We can hypothesize that at midsummer sunrise, and, perhaps on the shortest day of the year the priest stood at the open side of the horseshoes to observe sunrise and sunset. In winter, the setting of the winter sun as the solstice signaled the beginning of lengthening days” (pg.160) The building of Stonehenge gave the people the ability to predict the change in season hence giving them the capacity to grow thriving crops.

The last theory is that Stonehenge was constructed as a sacred place. These stones symbolize a type of religion permanence and place that could never be changed even though the world and people around them would. This is important to understanding the sacred and perhaps religious meanings of the stones. The builders of Stonehenge left us very few clues as to what purpose it played in society. They did however, leave us two clues, the alter and also the use of Stonehenge as a burial ground. These two clues seem to present the idea that Stonehenge was indeed a place of worship. In marking a site with such prominent and monumental objects, it is made apparent that there was something sacred and important about the site. “Stonehenge itself changed over the centuries, but the circles always symbolized the close, and unchanging, relationship between the farming year and the ever-changing world of the heavens” (pg. 163).

There are many other structures and monuments that share the same visual qualities as Stonehenge. For example, the Durrington Walls, on the easternmost side of Stonehenge , also simulated the similar circular monument made out of timber posts. The similarity of these structures shows that there must have been some significance placed on the interaction and functionality of the structures. Due to there circular configurations one is forced to circumambulate the structure. Stonehenge is thought to have been used as a sacred spot since the moment that it was erected. The cremation mounds and spots found throughout Stonehenge prove that it had some spiritual significance. However, was the spot always sacred or was it made sacred because of what was placed on the land? Perhaps this spot was always sacred because of the astronomical factors and celestial seasons that closely tie into the nature of Stonehenge .

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